Research Paper Essay Example for Free

Research Paper Essay Introduction Criticism is as old as creation. The writings of a great classical writers like Homer, Sophocles and Pindar contain hints of critical ideas. These ideas were later on developed by Plato and Aristotle into systematic principles of literary criticism. Thus, the true beginning of criticism is found in Greece in the writing of Plato and Aristotle. Later on Greco-Roman critics like Horace and Longinus added their ideas. The man aspect of Greek criticism was their mimetic or imitation theory. The views of these classical critics may be summarized as follows:- I. Critical view of Classical Critical Plato:- is a famous critic of the classical age. His view on art and literature are scattered all over his works which include Republic, Lon and various references made by him. His views on poetic inspiration, imitation and condemnation of poetry are of great historical significance. These views can be discussed as follows:- Plato was the first philosopher who systematically expressed his views on art and poetry. According to Plato, the poet writes because he is inspired frenzy. The poet is inferior the philosopher. He is dangerous for society. Poetry feeds passions, so Plato does not give place to poets in his ideal state. Being a product of inspiration. Poetry affect the emotion rather than reason. Plato condemns poetry for its lack of morality. It treats virtue and vice alike considering the function of poetry, Plato think that mere pleasure cannot be its only object. Plato further says that poetry is based on falsehood and so is harmful in its effect on people. Thus, Plato condemns poetry and praises reason or philosophy. Plato’s theory of art and poetry is based on his concept of imitation or mimesis. Plato says that the earthly things like beauty of goodness are only the copies of the idea beauty and goodness existing in heaven. So the imitation of the worldly objects which are imitation of ideal objects is nothing but â€Å" imitation of imitation† art and poetry are thus twice removed from reality. Plato explains this fact with an example of a carpenter. A carpenter makes a bed which is an imitation (bed in painting) of an imitation (bed created by the carpenter).  It is a copy of a copy. This view of Plato is late on criticized by Aristotle. Aristotle:- is the first scientific literary critic. His literary criticism is largely embodied in his treatise the poetics. The treatise contains Aristotle’s views on poetry, tragedy, comedy and epic. Aristotle has given his view on imitation also on poetry, comedy and epic. Also these views may be summarized as follows:- Aristotle’s views on property and imitation are remarkable. Aristotle did not invent the term imitation but the breathed into it a new and definite meaning. Aristotle remarks that poetic imitation is no longer considered mimicry. It is not servile copying. On the contrary, it is an act of imaginative creation. According to Aristotle, poetry and other fine arts are modes of imitation. They differ from one another in three aspects:- Medium of imitation, object of imitation and manner of imitation. Different forms of poetry has different means which include rhythm, melody and verse. Comedy and tragedy too can be called the means of poetry. As regards the objects of poetic imitation, Aristotle says that the objects of poetic imitation are â€Å" men in action† the poet may imitate â€Å" men as they are, as they were and as they ought to be†. Aristotle also speaks about the manner in which the objects may be used. For examples narration is one of such means which used by Homer. Aristotle refutes Plato’s view that poetry is the imitation of imitation or thrice removed from reality. He says that the poet does not copy the external world. On the contrary, creates a new world. The poetic truth is the ideal truth. Poetry is creative process. Aristotle further says that imitation is the artistic and representation of life. Thus, Aristotle theory of imitation of noteworthy and valuable. Aristotle has given his views on tragedy in detail. He define, tragedy as â€Å"an imitation that is serious, complete and of certain magnitude†. According to him tragedy has parts like plot, character, diction, song, and spectacle. As regards the function of tragedy, Aristotle says, the function of tragedy is to arouse the emotions of pity and fear and to affect the Catharsis of these emotions. Aristotle has given the qualities of a tragic hero also. Similarly he has spoken much about the unity of action and little of the unities of place and time. Horace and Quintillion Horace and Quintillion are the Greco-Roman critics. Horace was a poet and he formulated his own poetic theories. These are embodied in his work poetica.  Horace also has spoken about poetry, imitation and the role of imagination. Horace has laid down rules for poets for writing poetry. According to him mere imitation of life is not the whole nature of poetry. The looks upon activity as a process of invention. As regards the function of poetry. Horace says that poetry should both teach and delight. However, he gives more emphasis on reaching then on delight finally according to Horace, genius and inspiration are essential for the poet but they need Quintillion’s views on poetry are in line with those of Horace. He given importance to poetic style and choice of words. Quintillion has been considered the pioneer of comparative criticism. He compares Greek literature with Roman and Greek language with Latin. In short, Quintillion is a minor critic of the Greco-Roman period.

Battle of Gettysburg Essay -- History Civil War USA Historic Essays

Battle of Gettysburg This most famous and most important Civil War Battle occurred over three hot summer days, July 1 to July 3, 1863, around the small market town of Gettysburg, Pennsylvania. It began as a skirmish but by its end involved 160,000 Americans. Before the battle, major cities in the North such as Philadelphia, Baltimore and even Washington were under threat of attack from General Robert E. Lee's Confederate Army of Northern Virginia which had crossed the Potomac River and marched into Pennsylvania. The Union Army of the Potomac under its very new and untried commander, General George G. Meade, marched to intercept Lee. On Tuesday morning, June 30, an infantry brigade of Confederate soldiers searching for shoes headed toward Gettysburg (population 2,400). The Confederate commander looked through his field glasses and spotted a long column of Federal cavalry heading toward the town. He withdrew his brigade and informed his superior, Gen. Henry Heth, who in turn told his superior, A.P. Hill, he would go back the following morning and "get those shoes." Wednesday morning, July 1, two divisions of Confederates headed back to Gettysburg. They ran into Federal cavalry west of the town at Willoughby Run and the skirmish began. Events would quickly escalate. Lee rushed 25,000 men to the scene. The Union had less than 20,000. After much fierce fighting and heavy casualties on both sides, the Federals were pushed back through the town of Gettysburg and regrouped south of the town along the high ground near the cemetery. Lee ordered Confederate General R.S. Ewell to seize the high ground from the battle weary Federals "if practicable." Gen. Ewell hesitated to attack thereby giving the Union troops a chance to dig in along Cemetery Ridge and bring in reinforcements with artillery. By the time Lee realized Ewell had not attacked, the opportunity had vanished. Meade arrived at the scene and thought it was an ideal place to do battle with Lee's Army. Meade anticipated reinforcements totaling up to 100,000 men to arrive and strengthen his defensive position. Confederate General James Longstreet saw the Union position as nearly impregnable and told Lee it should be left alone. He argued that Lee's Army should instead move east between the Union Army and Washington and build a defensive position thus forcing the Federals to attack ... ...h. Confederate causalities in dead, wounded and missing were 28,000 out of 75,000. Union casualties were 23,000 out of 88,000. That night and into the next day, Saturday, July 4, Confederate wounded were loaded aboard wagons that began the journey back toward the South. Lee was forced to abandon his dead and begin a long slow withdrawal of his army back to Virginia. Union commander Meade, out of fatigue and caution, did not immediately pursue Lee, infuriating President Lincoln who wrote a bitter letter to Meade (never delivered) saying he missed a "golden opportunity" to end the war right there. On November 19, President Lincoln went to the battlefield to dedicate it as a military cemetery. The main orator, Edward Everett of Massachusetts, delivered a two hour formal address. The president then had his turn. He spoke in his high, penetrating voice and in a little over two minutes delivered the Gettysburg Address, surprising many in the audience by its shortness and leaving others quite unimpressed. Over time, however, the speech and its words - government of the People, by the People, for the People - have come to symbolize the definition of democracy itself.

Gender Equality In Education

All over the world, education is not only acknowledged to benefit individuals but as well recognized to promote national development. Education expands the life choices and opportunity for both boys and girls; nevertheless, approximately 60 million girls continue to be out of school (â€Å"Gender Equality in Education†). Several government and non-government organization have been continually working to eliminate the disparity between boys and girls by identifying gender-related barriers, evaluating the extent of education disadvantage that the latter confront, and implementing systems to overcome and remove the aforesaid impediments.Basically, ensuring gender equality in education suggests that boys and girls have equal opportunities to enroll and access school, as well as to benefit from, and participate in the array of subjects or other learning practices presented in schools and classrooms. Effective Strategies for Equality In Education An effective approach for educating boys and girls requires incorporating attention to enrollment and admission, in addition to achievement and excellence.Through gender-sensitive teaching-learning methods, learning materials, and curricula, boys and girls in the same way become prepared with the attitudes and life skills needed to achieve their definitive skill, within and beyond the educational system, irrespective of their sex (â€Å"Promoting Gender Equality in Education† 2). Unfortunately, in developing countries, girls generally come up against textbooks, teaching practices, and other school materials that endorse gender stereotypes that are disadvantageous to their educational success.In addition, unsafe school environment creates difficulties to the completion of education, more especially to girls. Keeping girls in schools necessitates donors, policymakers, educators, community members, and parents to look further than enrollment and deal with bigger, related issues. For instance, poor families normall y have to choose between educating their daughters or sons, and more often than not parents routinely prefer to educate their sons.Evidently, decisions are normally not be anchored in the natural skills, aptitudes, or the enthusiasm levels of their children. However, the prearranged gender responsibilities may not automatically benefit boys either, and may even be detrimental to them. Young age boys may experience a profound responsibility to academically perform in order to meet their families’ expectations to be successful. Consequences of Gender Equality In EducationExceptionally numerous children, particularly those form poor families and living in remote or rural areas, constantly needs quality learning opportunities, such as access to a sheltered, nearby school. Child soldiers, trafficked children, orphaned children, displaced children, refugee children, street children, indigenous children, working children, as well as those who are living in conflict areas, and physic ally challenged are not receiving an adequate education (â€Å"Education From A Gender Equality Perspective† 6).Even more unfortunate, being female aggravates an already problematical situation. In many developing countries, girls are less encouraged than boys to stay in school, enroll in school, or less expected to have their educational requirements provided using non-formal approaches (â€Å"Education From A Gender Equality Perspective† 6). Evidently, the most excellent, available development investment is not being totally exploited by these nations. Educating girls takes in significant outcomes.Educating girls to a certain extent generates a higher rate of return than any other investment presented in the developing world. When girls are provided with access to a rights-based, quality education, they have a tendency to postpone marriage, boast healthier and fewer children, and throw in more to nation productivity and family income (â€Å"Education From A Gender E quality Perspective† 6). Whether consideration is focused on primary or secondary education, providing and ensuring access to high quality education is essential if nations are to realize their development objectives.Developing countries that fall short of guaranteeing impartial access to basic education are, as a result, affected by distressing consequences, such as the increase in fertility and increase costs, poverty, malnutrition, and child mortality. Worldwide Status of Gender Inequality In Education According to the visionary educator Dr. Kwegyir Aggrey, â€Å"Educating the men and neglecting the women is the most certain approach to keep a population down† (â€Å"Girl Power: Educating Girls in the 21st Century† n. p. ).Accordingly, a nation basically educates a person if it educates a man; however, a nation educates a family if it educates a woman. The good news these days, however, is that over recent decades a record numbers of girls have swarmed into sc hool. Girls have closed the gender gap with boys, and prevailed over considerable development, social, and economic gains for their communities as well as for themselves. In poor countries, in general, girls’ primary school enrollments in 1990 to 2004 soared from 87 percent to 94 percent; with more girls today in secondary school than in any documented period in history (Mercy and Fort).Nevertheless, despite the fact that inequalities in the enrolment rates in primary and secondary education have decreased, they have not been eradicated up until now. At present, more than two-thirds of the estimated 860 million uneducated persons around the world are women (â€Å"Decent childhoods: Educate both girls and boys†). Conclusion Education is a basic human right, and children regardless of sex, color, nationality and religion are entitled to it. Education is significant to the development of people and societies, as it helps bring about a productive and successful future.For the millions of illiterate children, admission to education is the pathway to an improved life. Moreover, educating girls leads the way for more extensive changes in the work places, societies and families. When governments guarantee access to a rights-based, quality education that is founded on gender equality to their young citizens, it generates a wave effect of benefits that clearly affect future generations. Works Cited â€Å"Decent childhoods: Educate both girls and boys. † June 2008.International Labour Organization. 4 March 2009 . â€Å"Education From A Gender Equality Perspective. † May 2008. USAID. 4 March 2009 . â€Å"Gender Equality in Education. † 20 April 2009. USAID. 4 March 2009 . â€Å"Girl Power: Educating Girls in the 21st Century. † 5 March 2009.The World Bank. 4 March 2009 . â€Å"Promoting Gender Equality in Education. † n. d. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. 4 March 2009 . Tembon, Mercy, and L ucia Fort. n. d. â€Å"Girl’s Education in the 21st Century. † The World Bank. 4 March 2009

Comparison Between Crito and Apology - 1661 Words

Comparison between Crito and Apology For these two articles that we read in Crito and Apology by Plato, we could know Socrates is an enduring person with imagination, because he presents us with a mass of contradictions: Most eloquent men, yet he never wrote a word; ugliest yet most profoundly attractive; ignorant yet wise; wrongfully convicted, yet unwilling to avoid his unjust execution. Behind these conundrums is a contradiction less often explored: Socrates is at once the most Athenian, most local, citizenly, and patriotic of philosophers; and yet the most self-regarding of Athenians. Exploring that contradiction, between  ¡Ã‚ §Socrates the loyal Athenian citizen ¡Ã‚ ¨ and  ¡Ã‚ §Socrates the philosophical critic of Athenian society, ¡Ã‚ ¨ will help†¦show more content†¦He also explains to Crito that the citizen is bound to the laws like a child is bound to a parent, and so to go against the laws would be like striking a parent. Rather than simply break the laws a nd escape, Socrates should try to persuade the laws to let him go. These laws present the citizens duty to them in the form of a kind of social contract. By choosing to live in Athens, a citizen is endorsing the laws, and is willing to follower by them. Therefore, if he was to break from prison now, having so consistently validated the social contract, he would be making himself an outlaw who would not be welcome in any other civilized state for the rest of his life. Furthermore when he dies, he will be harshly judged in the underworld for behaving unjustly toward his citys laws. In this way, Socrates chooses not to attempt escape but he dies as a martyr, not for himself, but for his city and its system of justice. The argument in the Apology is that one should never betray one ¡Ã‚ ¦s own philosophy for any reason, even if the reason is death. Moreover, death should never be a deterrent to a man because no man has true knowledge of death, and  ¡Ã‚ §surely it is the most blamewor thy ignorance to believe that one knows what one does not know ¡Ã‚ ¨ (Plato 32). Socrates believes that we have no cause to fear death, and as stated in a previous quote, for the philosopher death was probably a moreShow MoreRelatedPlato s Apology And Crito983 Words   |  4 Pagesevents that have marked the history of humanity on earth. In the following written works, Plato’s Apology and Crito, The Gospel According to Mark, and Dante’s Inferno, religion and politics are shown to be intertwined, which emphasizes the impact of each individual character in each written work. Also, these written works explain how politics are affected by religion and vice versa. 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